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Compiled by
Gary S. Breschini, Trudy Haversat and Jon Erlandson
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR RADIOCARBON
AND STABLE CARBON ANALYSES
Compiled by Jon M. Erlandson
Introduction
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Compiled by Jon M. Erlandson
Introduction
The purpose of this annotated bibliography is to provide California archaeologists with accessible references to guide them in the proper collection, selection, and treatment of 14C samples and the effective correction, calibration, and interpretation of 14C dates. To that end, a variety of topical and theoretical publications are listed, with brief annotations summarizing the focus of each. Several articles discussing the techniques and applications of stable carbon isotope analyses are also included.Radiocarbon dating plays an increasingly integral role in California archaeology. More than ever, the building of site-specific and regional chronologies relies on 14C dating. Likewise, recent developments in stable carbon (and other elemental) isotope studies hold tremendous potential for advancing our understanding of human adaptation. As increasingly sophisticated extraction, analytical, and correction techniques are developed, the accuracy and reliability of carbon analyses continue to improve.
Unfortunately, the sophistication of archaeological interpretation of 14C dates has not always kept pace with recent scientific developments. For instance, I recently reviewed a draft CRM report that dismissed the significance of a major historic Chumash village, despite the recovery of many glass beads, on the basis that the seemingly "old" 14C dates suggested that the historic midden must have been graded away. On closer examination, I found that the marine shell dates on which the site chronology was based had been adjusted for isotopic fractionation (12C/13C) but not for the compensating value of the Reservoir Effect (see Taylor 1986). When properly corrected and calibrated, the dates were consistent with ethnographic and artifactual evidence for historic site occupation.
Marine shell continues to be the material most frequently used by California archaeologists for radiocarbon dating, despite the established folklore that charcoal or wood samples produce more reliable dates. Several papers in the following bibliography bear directly on this issue, including (1) Stuiver et al.'s (1986) calibration table for deriving calendar ages from marine samples up to 9000 years old; (2) Schiffer's (1986) evaluation of the "old wood problem," which emphasizes that wood and charcoal samples date the growth of plant tissues and generally produce dates older than the associated cultural materials; (3) Blong and Gillespie's (1978) article on the durability and redeposition of old charcoal, which emphasizes the importance of dating featural charcoal where available; and (4) Tankersley et al.'s (1987) demonstration that coal (and perhaps other contaminants such as asphaltum?) may escape macroscopic detection and contaminate charcoal 14C samples.
These and other studies suggest that marine shell samples, when properly treated, pretreated, analyzed, and corrected, may provide radiocarbon dates that are as (or more) reliable than those derived from wood and charcoal. Ultimately, however, many large radiocarbon series produce one or more "anomalous" dates that do not fit our expectations or preconceptions. This fact provides a strong argument for what should be a fundamental tenet in modern archaeology: don't rely on a single 14C date unless you have strong corroboration from independent lines of evidence.
Arundale, W.H.
1981 Radiocarbon Dating in Eastern Arctic Archaeology: A Flexible Approach. American Antiquity 46(2):244-271.A thorough and up to date examination of problems in Arctic radiocarbon dating in general and sea mammal remains in particular.
Bartlett, H.H.
1957 Radiocarbon Datability of Peat, Marl, Caliche and Archaeological Materials. Science 114:55-56.A cautionary note concerning the contamination from extinct carbon derived from ancient limestones.
Baxter, M.S. and A. Walton
1970 Radiocarbon Dating of Mortars. Nature 225:937-938.A brief discussion comparing mortar samples of known age with 14C assessments and potential sources of contamination.
Bender, M.M., D.A. Baerreis, and R.L. Steventon
1981 Further Light on Carbon Isotopes and Hopewell Agriculture. American Antiquity 46(2):346-353.The use of 13C and 12C ratios in human bone collagen as an inference of prehistoric dietary components, primarily dealing with the development of maize agriculture.
Berger, R., A.G. Horney and W.F. Libby
1964 Radiocarbon Dating of Bone and Shell from their Organic Components. Science 144:999-1001.A discussion of the extraction and dating of bone collagen and shell conchiolin as compared to earlier and less accurate techniques.
Berger, R. and H.E. Seuss, eds.
1979 Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference. University of California Press, Berkeley.A compendium of 64 articles concerning radiocarbon and other dating methods (primarily amino acid racemization). Includes a calibration table based on tree-ring data analyzed up to August 1978 (see Seuss 1980).
Blong, R.J. and R. Gillespie
1978 Fluvially Transported Charcoal Gives Erroneous 14C ages for Recent Deposits. Nature 271:739-741.A cautionary note concerning the use of scattered charcoal in the dating of deposits formed or modified by alluvial processes.
Bowman, Sheridan
1990 Radiocarbon Dating. University of California Press and the British Museum, Berkeley.This is a concise (64 page), clearly written, and inexpensive primer on radiocarbon dating, with chapters on basic principles, variations in 14C concentrations, laboratory measurement, calibration, and archaeological applications.
1974 Radiocarbon Dating: Some Practical Considerations for the Archaeologist. Journal of Archaeological Science 1:69-87.Emphasizes the importance of unequivocal sample selection, proper laboratory pretreatment, and the need for consensus standardized calibration of the radiocarbon time-scale.
Burleigh, R. and D. Brothwell
1978 Carbon Isotopes in Relation to Maize in the Diet of Domestic Dogs from Early Peru and Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological Science 5:355-362.Stable carbon isotopes as a measure of dietary constituents. Includes an appendix presenting measurement technique and appropriate sample size.
Damon, P.E., C.W. Ferguson, A. Long, and E.I. Wallick
1974 Dendrochronological Calibration of the Radiocarbon Time-scale. American Antiquity 39:350-366.Presents a tree-ring calibration table for radiocarbon dates between 350 and 7350 B.P., including half-life correction figures.
DeAtley, S.P.
1980 Radiocarbon Dating of Ceramic Materials: Progress and Prospects. Radiocarbon 22(4):987-993.A review of early attempts to date ceramics with 14C, factors causing anomalous dates, and potential solutions to such contamination.
DeNiro, M.J. and S. Epstein
1978 Influence of Diet on the Distribution of Carbon Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42:495-506.Presents the results of experiments documenting the dietary determination of 13C levels in laboratory animals, with implications for archaeology and paleontology.
1974 Radiocarbon-14 Dates and the Archaeologist. Archaeology of Eastern North America 2(1):21-29.A general overview of problems associated with the interpretation of radiocarbon dates by the archaeologist.
Erlandson, Jon. M. and Thomas K. Rockwell
1987 Radiocarbon Reversals and Stratigraphic Discontinuities: The Effect of Natural Formation Processes on Coastal California Archaeological Sites. In Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record, D.T. Nash and M.D. Petraglia, BAR International Series 352. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.A discussion of natural and cultural disturbance processes that affect the integrity of archaeological sites along the California coast, with emphasis on the interpretation of stratigraphically reversed 14C dates.
Evin, J., J. Marechal, C. Paciaudi, and J.J. Puissegur
1980 Conditions Involved in Dating Terrestrial Shells. Radiocarbon 22(2):545-555.A comparison of terrestrial snail shells with peat, charcoal or bone, with conclusion that land shell represents a highly unreliable dating material.
Folk, R.L. and S. Valastro, Jr.
1979 Dating of Lime Mortar by 14C. In Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference, R. Berger and H.E. Seuss, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley.Description of a modified method for the extraction and dating of lime mortars.
Geyh, M.A., J.H. Benzler, and G. Roeshmann
1970 Problems of Dating Pleistocene and Holocene Soils by Radiometric Methods. In Paleopedology: Origin, Nature and Dating of Paleosols, D.G. Yaalon, ed. Israel Universities Press.A brief, yet comprehensive, review of soil dating concepts and problems.
1977 Radiocarbon Dating of Shell Middens. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 12(1):26-37.Describes oceanographic factors producing errors in 14C measurement for marine shells and a correlation of shell and charcoal age determinations from Australian middens.
Goh, K.M. and B.P.J. Molloy
1973 Reliability of Radiocarbon Dates from Buried Charcoals. Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference 2:565-581. Royal Society of New Zealand.A re-evaluation of the accuracy of soil charcoal in radiocarbon dating with a review of factors causing erroneous dates.
Grant-Taylor, T.L.
1973 The Extraction and Use of Plant Lipids as a Material for Radiocarbon Dating. Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference 1:27-43. Royal Society of New Zealand.An improved method for dating soil horizons utilizing fats derived from plant residues.1973 Conditions for the Use of Calcium Carbonate as a Dating Material. Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference 2:592-595. Royal Society of New Zealand.A brief discussion of the use of marine shell in radiocarbon dating. Includes a partial list of shell species unsuitable for use (oysters, pectens, barnacles, etc.).
1977 Inclusions in Bone Material as a Source of Error in Radiocarbon Dating. Archaeometry 19:131-135.Presents evidence that collagen in fossil bones is sometimes subject to replacement by minerals not removed through standard laboratory pretreatment.
Johnson, F. and E.H. Willis
1970 Reconciliation of Radiocarbon and Sidereal Years in Meso-American Chronology. In Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, I.U. Olsson, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.A specific discussion of the effects of the application of correction factors and the archaeologists view of cultural evolution.
Leamy, M.L. and T.A. Rafter
1973 Isotope Ratios Preserved in Pedogenic Carbonate and their Application in Paleopedology. Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference 1:353-368. Royal Society of New Zealand.A technical, yet valuable, discussion of the use of radiocarbon dating of soil profiles in paleoclimatic reconstruction in Australia.
Lerman, J.C.
1973 Carbon 14 Dating: Origin and Correction of Isotope Fractionation Errors in Terrestrial Living Matter. Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference 2:612-624. Royal Society of New Zealand.A discussion of isotope fractionation in various plant families and the effects upon dating of terrestrial plants and mammals. Includes proposed correction factors.
1970 C 14 in Tree Rings from Different Localities. In Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, I.U. Olsson, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.A suggested correction for southern hemisphere 14C dates based on latitudinal differentiation of radiocarbon concentrations in the atmosphere.
Libby, W.F.
1952 Radiocarbon Dating. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.The first edition of Libby's classic book describing the fundamental principles of radiocarbon dating.
Libby, W.F., R.C. Anderson and J.R. Arnold
1949 Age Determination by Radiocarbon Content: Worldwide Assay of Natural Radiocarbon. Science 109:227-228.The initial report of radiocarbon dating of Egyptian tomb materials of known age.
Long, A. and B. Rippeteau
1974 Testing Contemporaneity and Averaging Radiocarbon Dates. American Antiquity 39:205-215.The statistical interpretation of radiocarbon series, including weighted averaging of dates, the determination of anomalous dates, and the evaluation of contemporaneity.
Longin, R.
1971 New Method of Collagen Extraction for Radiocarbon Dating. Nature 230:241-242.Technique provided excellent correlation between contemporary charcoal and bone collagen samples.
1971 Dating Methods in Archaeology. Seminar Press.A general overview of radiocarbon dating.
Neustupny, E.
1970 The Accuracy of Radiocarbon Dating. In Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, I.U. Olsson, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.A general review of sources of error in radiocarbon dating, including several pages of relevant discussion by members of the symposium.
Ogden, J. Gordon III
1977 The Use and Abuse of Radiocarbon Dating. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 288:167-173.A discussion of the sources and effects of error or contamination in the dating of radiocarbon samples.
Olsson, I.U., ed.
1970 Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology: Proceedings of the Twelfth Nobel Symposium. John Wiley & Sons, New York.Thirty-seven papers on eight general subjects concerning radiocarbon dating, including commentary of selected participants following each session. A number of papers relevant to archaeologists are cited elsewhere in this bibliography.
Polach, D.
1988 Radiocarbon Dating Literature: The First 21 Years, 1947-1968. Academic Press, New York.An excellent and well organized annotated bibliography with over 2,800 entries for literature related to radiocarbon dating. Volume is indexed, so that 78 California entries (archaeological, geological, etc.) are easily found.
1973 Proceedings of the Eighth International Radiocarbon Dating Conference. Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand.A compilation of 62 papers presented in seven sessions.
Ralph, E.K. and H.N. Michael
1970 MASCA Radiocarbon Dates for Sequoia and Bristlecone Pine Samples. In Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, I.U. Olsson, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.A correlation table from the University of Pennsylvania which is sometimes used in archaeological publications.
Ralph, E.K., H.N. Michael, and M.C. Han
1974 Radiocarbon Dates and Reality. Archaeology of Eastern North America 2(1):1-20.A discussion of dendrochronological calibration of radiocarbon dates using the MASCA correction table.
Read, D.W.
1979 The Effective Use of Radiocarbon Dates in the Seriation of Archaeological Sites. In Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference, R. Berger and H.E. Seuss, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley.An instructive article discussing the potential research parameters governing the selection of radiocarbon samples for dating within a regional context.
Renfrew, C. and R.M. Clark
1974 Problems of the Radiocarbon Calendar and it's Calibration. Archaeometry 16:5-18.An examination of problems associated with determining appropriate calibration functions.
1974 Using 14C Calendrical Corrections and Conventions. Archaeology of Eastern North America 2(1):29-37.Suggestions for the correction of 14C dates and their presentation in published form.
Robinson, Stephen W. and Gail Thompson
1981 Radiocarbon Corrections for Marine Shell Dates with Application to Southern Pacific Northwest Coast Prehistory. Syesis 14:45-57.Presents data concerning necessary corrections for determining the age of marine shell samples from the Pacific Coast of North America and discusses the advantages of shell 14C samples in relation to charcoal.
Saupe, F., O. Strapa, R. Coppens, B. Guillet and R. Jaegy
1980 A Possible Source of Error in 14C Dates: Volcanic Emanations. Radiocarbon 22(2): 525-531.Documents the dilution of radiocarbon in plants located near volcanic activity with resulting anomalously high age determinations. Includes an archaeological example from Italy.
Scharpenseel, H.W.
1970 Radiocarbon Dating of Soils--Problems, Troubles and Hopes. In Paleopedology: Origin, Nature and Dating of Paleosols, D.H. Yaalon, ed. Israel Universities Press.Basic principles involved in the dating and interpretation of charcoal or humus from soil horizons.
Schiffer, Michael B.
1986 Radiocarbon Dating and the "Old Wood" Problem: The Case of the Hohokam Chronology. Journal of Archaeological Science 13:13-30.Emphasizes that wood and charcoal samples produce 14C dates corresponding to the age of plant tissue growth and generally produce dates older than associated cultural materials. Recently collected wood from the Sonoran Desert produced 14C dates ranging from modern to 970±430 years. This paper provides further evidence that dating charcoal and wood samples is not free of analytical problems.
1980 The Radiocarbon Record in Tree-rings of the Last 8000 Years. Radiocarbon 22(2):200-209.Documents the short-term periodicity of production of radiocarbon in the atmosphere.
Sheppard, J. C.
1975 A Radiocarbon Dating Primer. Washington State University, College of Engineering, Bulletin 338.A broad overview of radiocarbon dating.
Spaulding, A. C.
1958 The Significance of Differences between Radiocarbon Dates. American Antiquity 23(3):309-311.Presents a relatively simple statistical method for determining the probability of random laboratory counting errors to account for differences between presumed contemporaneous dates.
Stuckenrath, Robert
1977 Radiocarbon: Some Notes from Merlin's Diary. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 288:181-188.A view from the laboratory perspective on some of the pitfalls and problems of 14C dating.
Stuiver, Minze
1978 Carbon-14 Dating: A Comparison of Beta and Ion Counting. Science 202:881-883.A comparison of sample size, accuracy, cost, and chronological range of these two common methods of laboratory counting.1982 A High Precision Calibration of the AD Radiocarbon Time Scale. Radiocarbon 24(1):1-26.A recent calendrical calibration table based on Pacific Coast dendrochronological samples of known age.
1980 Proceedings of the Tenth International Radiocarbon Conference. Radiocarbon 22(2-3):1-1016.Presents 98 articles (with comments) from the symposium.
Stuiver, M., B. Kromer, B. Becker and C.W. Ferguson
1986 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Back to 13,300 years BP and the 14C Age Matching of the German Oak and US Bristlecone Pine Chronologies. Radiocarbon 28(2B):969-979.This paper extends the length of the dendrocalibration curves back over 12,000 radiocarbon years and demonstrates that the discontinuity in solar vs. 14C years extends back into the Pleistocene.
Stuiver, M., G.W. Pearson, and Tom Braziunas
1986 Radiocarbon Age Calibration of Marine Samples Back to 9000 CAL YR BP. Radiocarbon 28(2B):980-1021.This entire issue of Radiocarbon is dedicated to issues related to the calibration of 14C dates to calendar years. This paper is particularly important because it allows the calibration of uncorrected marine shell dates up to 8600 radiocarbon years old. Calibration tables include corrections for both the global and regional reservoir effects. However, dates must be corrected for the effects of isotopic fractionation prior to calibration.
Tamers, M.A. and F.J. Pearson, Jr.
1965 Validity of Radiocarbon Dates on Bone. Nature 208:1053-1055.A brief discussion of early problems in the dating of bone and the effects upon radiocarbon dates.
1987 Recognition of Bituminous Coal Contaminants in Radiocarbon Samples. American Antiquity 52:318-330.A cautionary note on the potential contamination of 14C samples by small pieces of coal, asphaltum, or other ancient carbon. Without explicitly stating it, this paper appears to be directed at claims of great antiquity for the Meadowcroft Rockshelter deposits in Pennsylvania.
Tauber, H.
1970 The Scandinavian Varve Chronology and C 14 Dating. In Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, I.U. Olsson, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.Suggests essential conformity of 14C dates, varve chronology, and true ages between 8,000 and 12,500 B.P.1979 14C Activity of Arctic Marine Animals. In Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference, R. Berger and H.E. Seuss, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley.A brief discussion of correction factors applicable to dates for mammals (including human) of the Arctic which subsist primarily on marine resources.
Taylor, R.E.
1987 Radiocarbon Dating: An Archaeological Perspective. Academic Press, New York.A valuable discussion of radiocarbon dating methods, especially oriented towards archaeologists, with a particularly important chapter on the evaluation of radiocarbon dates.
1968 Radiocarbon Dating of the Organic Portion of Ceramic and Wattle-and-daub House Construction Materials of Low Carbon Content. American Antiquity 33(3):363-366.A comparison of radiocarbon determinations for contemporaneous charcoal and organics derived from ceramic and wattle-and-daub materials.
Taylor, R.E., R. Berger, and B. Dimsdale
1968 Electronic Data Processing for Radiocarbon Dates. American Antiquity 33(2):179-184.A suggested computer format for storage and rapid retrieval of radiocarbon dates and associated data.
Taylor, R.E. and P.J. Slota
1979 Fraction Studies on Marine Shell and Bone Samples for Radiocarbon Analyses. In Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference, R. Berger and H.E. Seuss, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley.A valuable review and update on procedural accuracies associated with radiocarbon analysis of marine shell and terrestrial bone.
Van der Merwe, N.J.
1969 The Carbon-14 Dating of Iron. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.A comprehensive review of historical metallurgical techniques, laboratory procedures and experimental results from radiocarbon dating of metal artifacts and manufacturing slags.
Van der Merwe, N.J. and J.C. Vogel
1978 13C Content of Human Collagen as a Measure of Prehistoric Diet in Woodland North America. Nature 276:815-816.Presents 13C values and interpretive analysis for 41 individuals from pre- and post-maize archaeological sites.
1980 Accuracy of the Radiocarbon Time-scale Beyond 15000 B.P. Radiocarbon 22(2):210-218.A discussion of relationships between radiocarbon years and true age during the late Pleistocene.
Vogel, J.C. and N.J. Van der Merwe
1977 Isotopic Evidence for Early Maize Cultivation in New York State. American Antiquity 42(2):238-242.Includes a discussion of the broader implications of carbon isotope analysis for dietary reconstructions.
Ward, G.K. and S.R. Wilson
1978 Procedures for Comparing and Combining Radiocarbon Age Determinations: A Critique. Archaeometry 20(1):19-31.Presents statistical techniques for comparing and combining radiocarbon dates.
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